1. Field of the Invention
The invention relates to the production of cakes, such as, sponge cakes, white layer cakes, muffins and doughnuts, starting with low sodium cake mixes as the precursors. The invention also relates to low sodium cake mixes and low sodium cakes.
2. Background of the Invention
The three usual sources of sodium in cakes are (i) salt, (ii) the basic leavening agent, such as, sodium bicarbonate, and (iii) the acidic leavening agent.
Cakes are usually leavened by carbon dioxide originating from added sodium bicarbonate (baking soda). When soda is added alone, it tends to make the dough alkaline, leading to flavor deterioration and discoloration, and the carbon dioxide is released very slowly. The addition of an acid along with the soda promotes a vigorous evolution of gas and keeps the dough pH near neutrality. The rate of gas release from solution controls the size of the bubbles in the dough and consequently influences the grain, volume and texture of the finished product. The most successful leavening acids have been cream of tartar (potassium acid tartrate), sodium aluminum sulfate (alum), sodium acid pyrophosphate and various forms of calcium phosphate.
DeMan, John M., "Principles Of Food Chemistry", (1980), p. 408, teaches that chemical leavening agents, which contain acids such as potassium acid tartrate, sodium aluminum phosphate, tartaric acid, monocalcium phosphate and sodium acid pyrophosphate, are used in a variety of foods. The Merck Index Of Chemicals And Drugs, 6th Ed., (1952), p. 190, discloses the use of CaH.sub.4 (PO.sub.4).sub.2 in combination with sodium bicarbonate as a baking powder.
Matz, Samuel A., "Cereal Technology", (1970), p. 49, states that the chemical formulas of leavening acids do not adequately define their function in doughs. According to Matz, small amounts of additives included in doughs during manufacture can have a profound effect on the rate of reaction of a leavening acid. Granule size and form also have important modifying actions.
Johnson, Arnold H., et al., "Encyclopedia Of Food Technology", (1974) p. 547, teaches that potassium hydrogen tartrate, i.e., cream of tartar, is a fast-acting baking acid, whereby the leavening gas is liberated chiefly during the mixing of the batter. The oven spring, i.e., expansion in the oven, is derived mainly from expansion of the preformed bubbles in the batter. The bench tolerance of such type of leavener is not suited for commercial bakery operations where machines are involved and there may be delays between mixing the batter and baking. Another fast-acting acid is monocalcium phosphate monohydrate, which is a more efficient leavener on a weight basis than is cream of tartar and does not react quite so rapidly in the batter. Anhydrous monocalcium phosphate has improved bench tolerance in that a portion of it is slow to dissolve in the batter and consequently has more oven spring.
Most commercial baking powders are of the double-action type, i.e., they give off a small amount of the available carbon dioxide during the mixing and make-up stages and then remain relatively quiescent until the temperature begins to rise after the batter is placed in the oven. Such type of action insures that an excessive loss of leavening gas will not occur if the baker finds it necessary to leave the batter in an unbaked condition for long periods.
U.S. Pat. No. 2,228,729 teaches preparation of a health bread using potassium carbonate and ammonium carbonate as the leavening agents. The bread produced is disclosed as being free of greenish color and hue and as having a fine whitish interior. To reduce the amount of chemical leavening agents, a large percentage of eggs is used that creates an expanding force upon heating. No fermentation is disclosed, although a sponge is produced.
U.S. Pat. No. 315,381 also discloses a baking powder for leavening dough wherein magnesium carbonate can be substituted for sodium bicarbonate, in whole or in part; the latter preferably and this agent is used in combination with either metaphosphoric or pyrophosphoric acid.
U.S. Reissue Pat. No. 2,979 teaches the use of a baking powder composition that included a dry alkaline carbonate either sodium or potassium, a calcium acid phosphate, and a farinaceous material such as flour. This composition is disclosed as being used in the production of cake or bread without a fermentation agent.
U.S. Pat. No. 673,057 also teaches a baking powder that comprises either sodium or potassium bicarbonate-carbonate in combination with monocalcium phosphate which is maintained stable by the addition of an insoluble calcium phosphate. The example indicated is for use in bread making.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,277,504 is specifically directed to a cake mix. The patent does teach preferably the use of potassium bicarbonate vis a vis sodium bicarbonate and an acidic component preferably glucono-deltalactone, although other acids may be used such as calcium acid monophosphate, sodium aluminum phosphate (acidic), tartaric acid, citric acid, etc. The essence of the patent, however, is the presentation of sweetness of a high fructose corn syrup used in baking a dietetic cake. Fructose is said to lose much of its sweetness when the cake batter is heated. By a combination of ingredients that includes flour, fructose, emulsifiers and baking powder having glucono-delta-lactone as the acidic component, the sweetness is maintained, despite the fact that the pH of the resultant cake falls within the range of 3.5 to 5.5. As a matter of fact, an acidic pH is mandatory in the patent as pointed out by Matz, Samuel A. "Cookie and Cracker Technology", (1968), at page 77, which states that potassium bicarbonate is very hygroscopic and tends to impart a bitter flavor in the foods in which it is used. Furthermore, potassium bicarbonate is very expensive. Matz teaches away from the use of carbonates because their very high alkalinity tends to result in localized areas of very high alkalinity which is formed as the carbonate granules dissolve in the batter. These localized areas lead to undesirably colored and flavored products.
While sodium bicarbonate is the most widely-used chemical leavening agent, many other compositions for producing carbon dioxide gas in foods without the use of sodium bicarbonate are known. While replacement of sodium chloride with potassium chloride can be beneficial to the health, it would not serve the function of neutralizing the acids produced in forming a dough and it would not leaven the cake dough. In using ammonium bicarbonate alone as a replacement for sodium bicarbonate, neutralization of the produced acids becomes a problem. The release of both ammonia and carbon dioxide makes pH control of the final cake product difficult.
The label of "White Cake Mix" distributed by Estee Corporation lists the following ingredients: fructose, enriched wheat flour (containing niacin, reduced iron, thiamine mononitrate and riboflavin), modified wheat starch, powdered cellulose, dried egg white, modified corn starch, propylene glycol monoesters and diesters of fatty acids, monoglycerides, diglycerides, monocalcium phosphate, potassium bicarbonate, potassium chloride and artificial flavor. The label bears the copyright date of 1980.
U.S. Pat. No. 3,297,449 (Baker et al.) discloses a preleavened packaged dough composition containing flour, water and leavening. The leavening is composed of about 1.4 percent to about 2.1 percent by weight of the dough of sodium acid pyrophosphate and a blend of sodium and potassium bicarbonate salts sufficient to at least substantially neutralize the pyrophosphate. The blend of sodium and potassium bicarbonate salts contains from about 20 mol percent to about 70 mol percent potassium salt. The preleavened packaged dough exhibits during storage a substantial reduction in both the occurrence and size of orthophosphate crystals. Potassium carbonate or potassium chloride can be used in place of all or part of potassium bicarbonate. Baker et al. states that substitution of potassium bicarbonate for sodium bicarbonate, even at the 100 percent level, has not been found to contribute objectionably to the flavor of the final product.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,277,127 (Radlove) is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Pat. No. 4,277,504 (Radlove); U.S. Pat. No. 4,379,174 (Radlove) is a continuation-in-part of the first listed patent.
Braaksma, E., et al., Brot and Geback, (March 1964), Vol. 3, pages 41 to 48, discloses the use of calcium carbonate.
Patt, V.A., et al., "Process For Preparing Wheat Samples For Breadmaking", Food Science Technology Abstract (1980), No. 719,584, deals with the making of special bread.
Terada M., et al., Agri., and Biol. Chemistry, (Tokyo), Vol. 42, No. 2, (1978), pp. 365 to 369, discloses dough prepared with a mixture of alkali carbonates, namely 60 percent of K.sub.2 CO.sub.3, 36 percent of Na.sub.2 CO.sub.3 and 4 percent of Na.sub.2 HPO.sub.4.7H.sub.2 O. In one instance a mixture of flour and the alkali carbonate mixture was used without sodium chloride. The dough was incubated at 40.degree. C. for several hours, its pH was neutralized (pH 5.8) with hydrochloric acid.
U.S. Pat. No. 1,706,760 (White) discloses a process of treating grain particles by mixing carbonate of potash with the grain particles in the presence of heat.
U.S. Pat. No. 1,952,947 (Schott) discloses several baking powders, broadly, potassium compounds or salts or alkaline character, such as, potassium carbonate, potassium bicarbonate and/or potassium percarbonate, in conjunction with an acid compound and with special separating means (for example, substances of an inorganic or organic nature which absorb water of humidity). The latter substance can be fine starch powder, fine wheat flour or kieselguhr, for example.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,388,336 (Yong et al.) discloses an improved dough formulation containing a mixture of flour, water and shortening and at least one leavener including an organic acid leavener incorporated into the mixture. There is also present at least one of a calcium divalent or trivalent compound and aluminum divalent or trivalent compound in an amount effective to reduce gumminess of less than about 1 percent by weight of dough. At least one compound can include calcium carbonate in an amount of less than about 1 percent by weight of dough. The leavener can include chemical leaveners which include an acid and a base in which the reaction produces CO.sub.2. Soda and bicarbonate of soda are disclosed.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,216,237 (Smith) discloses a dry, potassium-supplement composition including from 10 to 50 percent by weight of potassium chloride and a balance of from 25 to 50 percent by weight of the balance of a water-soluble carbohydrate, foodstuff ingredient which is sugar, a nonhydroscopic starch hydrolysate and a mixture thereof. From 50 to 75 percent by weight of the balance is an organic, potassium-containing foodstuff ingredient, at least half of which is milk solids, cocoa, powdered tomato or ground nuts. Sodium bicarbonate or potassium bicarbonate can also be present.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,044,155 (Hoseny et al.) discloses a nonfat dry milk substitute for incorporation into yeast-leavened doughs. The substituent includes deproteinized whey, a quantity of a substance providing from about 1 to 10 percent by weight of ammonium ion in the substitute, and from about 20 to 60 percent by weight of a protein supplement. The substitute can contain sufficient basic material to give the latter a pH of from about 3 to 7. The basic material can be the oxides, hydroxides, carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium.
U.S. Pat. No. 3,632,355 (Hopkinton et al.) discloses a method of controlling the leavening of a bakery mix of the type employing an edible bicarbonate as the source of carbon dioxide gas for leavening purposes at sea level and various elevations above sea level. Substantially all of the edible bicarbonate is packaged in a first package, and the remaining ingredients of the bakery mix are packaged in a second package. The first package has a plurality of indicia which indicates an elevation above sea level to correspond with the amount of carbon dioxide obtainable from the edible bicarbonate in the portion of edible bicarbonate in the first package above each of the indicia which is required for optimum leavening of the remaining ingredients of the bakery mix at the elevation above sea level. The edible bicarbonate in the first package is separated along a plane running through the package parallel to a selected indicia indicating the approximate elevation at which the bakery mix is to be used. The portion of the edible bicarbonate in the first package below the plane is described with the remaining ingredients of the bakery mix in the dry state to produce a complete dry bakery mix. Aqueous fluid is mixed with complete dry bakery mix in a quantity sufficient to produce a baking dough. The baking dough is baked sufficiently to transform the baking dough into a bakery product. The component of the complete bakery mix, which is isolated from other components of the bakery mix, may be other potential gas-liberating materials, such as other edible carbonates or bicarbonates, e.g., ammonium bicarbonate.
U.S. Pat. No 3,505.082 (Miller) discloses a sodium free dietary-substitute composition for table salt. It contains 0.01 to 0.25 part of fumaric acid per part of potassium chloride. The composition is characterized by relative freedom from bitter after-taste, corrosiveness, hygroscopicity and deliquescence.
U.S. Pat. No. 3,490,916 (Henika) discloses a process for preparing yeast stable brews capable of being held for substantial periods of time and subsequently used in the leavening of doughs. Essential brew ingredients including water, yeast, yeast foods, sugar and salt are mixed with a stabilizing agent, e.g., cereal and soy flours, whey, calcium carbonate, dry nonfat milk, and mixtures thereof. The mixed brew contains sugar in an amount just sufficient to initiate yeast fermentation reactions to produce gas at a desired uniform relatively-high rate. The stabilized brew is held at a temperature within the range from about 75.degree. to 95.degree. F. for a period of time not in excess of about 25 to 45 minutes to achieve the desired gassing rate. The stabilizing agent is effective to control the pH of the brew to within a range from 4.0 to 4.8 without interfering in the gas producing activity of the yeast in the brew. The brew is cooled to a temperature below about 60.degree. F. to effectively inhibit the gas producing activity of the yeast cells and to temporarily suppress yeast fermentation reactions. The brew is then held at a temperature below about 60.degree. F.
U.S. Pat. No. 3,108,878 (Higashiuchi et al.) discloses a method for producing yeast-leavened baked goods of improved flavor. Disposed in water is: an amount of particulate, active lipoxidase-bearing edible material equal to 0.05 to 5.0 percent of the weight of the flour to be used in the dough and an amount of an edible enzyme-peroxidizable fat equal to 0.1 to 6.0 percent of the flour weight. The lipoxidase-bearing material has an active lipoxidase content equal to at least 10 percent of the active lipoxidase content of unprocessed soybean flour. The resulting aqueous composition is agitated, while maintaining the same at a temperature of 40 to 110.degree. F. and a pH of at least 4.0, but not materially exceeding 8.5, thereby effecting peroxidation of the fat. The aqueous composition is then combined with flour and other dough-forming ingredients. The resulting mixture is worked to form a developed dough, and the dough is baked A calcium carbonate buffer can be used.
U.S. Pat. No. 3,052,549 (Kichline et al.) discloses a chemically-leavened baking composition suitable for prolonged storage at temperatures below about 30.degree. F. The composition includes flour, water, shortening, a water-ionizable material containing calcium as one of its ions, a baking carbonate, an alkali metal acid pyrophosphate, and a water-soluble alkali metal polyphosphate having a chain length greater than about 8. The baking carbonate can be sodium bicarbonate or potassium carbonate.
U.S. Pat. No. 2,984,543 (Smith et al.) discloses a process for producing a stabilized free-flowing particle from carbonate product. The process involves intimately containing about 0.005 to about 0.2 weight percent based on the carbonate of guar gum. The resulting product is dried and reduced to finely-divided form. The reduced formed product is classified whereby a dry solid particulate product of the gum impregnated carbonate in the mesh size range of about 30 to 150 results. The product is used in the formulation of effervescing compositions.
U.S. Pat. No. 2,970,915 (Evanston) discloses a method for preparing bread combining flour, water, other dough-forming ingredients, and a small, but effective proportion of a bread improver composition comprising finely-divided particulate material, e.g., calcium carbonate, and an edible, normally solid, water-emulsifiable protective covering material. The latter can be lecithin, monoglycerides having an iodine value not exceeding 50, mixed mono- and diglycerides having an iodine value not exceeding 50, and the tartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides having an iodine value not exceeding 50.
U.S. Pat. No. 2,824,008 (Perri et al.) discloses an edible composition containing by weight, about 45 to 55 parts of potassium chloride, 30 to 40 parts of dipotassium succinate, and 10 to 20 parts of dipotassium fumarate.
U.S. Pat. No. 2,810,650 (Joslin) discloses a dough characterized by low temperature stability. The dough including, as a leavening component, dicalcium phosphate dihydrate in combination with sodium bicarbonate or potassium bicarbonate.
U.S. Pat. No. 2,601,112 (Freedman) discloses an edible composition composing a mixture of water-soluble saline tasting salts of potassium and ammonium in a major proportion and a salt of chlorine having an acid reaction in a minor proportion.
U.S. Pat. No. 2,394,791 (Lloyd et al.) discloses a batter for baking including an intimate mixture of neutral starch of pH not substantially below 6.8 lactide, and calcium carbonate, all in finely-divided condition. The calcium carbonate is present in the proportion of about 0.046 to 0.38 part for 100 parts dry weight of the batter mixture and 4 to 16 parts to 1 of the lactide. The neutral starch is substantially unreactive with the calcium carbonate. The excess of calcium carbonate over the amount chemically equivalent to the lactide serves to improve the quality of the batter. The starch can be neutralized with sodium carbonate, bicarbonate, or potassium bicarbonate.
U.S. Pat. No. 2,288,118 (Vaupel) discloses a process for the manufacture of soda crackers from a dough in which the leavening action is supplied by yeast and in which soda is added to overcome acid produced by the yeast. The dough sodium bicarbonate and an ammonium salt of a strong acid can be added in an amount not substantially more than 50 percent by weight of the bicarbonate and not substantially less than 25 percent by weight of the bicarbonate.
U.S. Pat. No. 2,137,027 (Pollak) discloses a method of preparing a dough conditioner increasing the fermentation tolerance of the dough. A mixture of neutralized organic acids phytins and ammonium chloride is prepared to form a first mixture. The organic acids are neutralized by means of nitrogen-containing yeast assimilable compounds. Thereafter the first mixture is mixed with materials containing diastatic enzymes to form a second mixture. The second mixture is heated in the presence of water to a point slightly below the damaging point of the amylolytic enzymes, whereby an interaction takes place between the first mixture and the diastatic enzymes. This increases the strength of the amylolytic enzymes without producing a corresponding rise in the activity of the proteoclastic enzymes. The neutralization can be done using ammonium carbonate in conjunction with calcium or magnesium carbonate.
U.S. Pat. No. 2,070,922 (Reichert et al.) discloses a cereal flour dough suitable for baking to produce an edible baked product, in which the dough has an alkaline reaction and a pH below 10. The dough contains a suitable quantity of hydrogen peroxide to act as a leavening agent without yeast or carbon dioxide evolving materials, and an alkali carbonate, such as, sodium carbonate.
U.S. Pat. No. 2,033,009 (Rosenthal) discloses a yeast fortified against acidic deterioration and adapted to be used in the making of leavened bread. The yeast mixture includes the ingredients: ammonium chloride, calcium sulfate, potassium bromate and flour. Calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate is also present
U.S. Pat. No. 2,032,442 (Schultz et al.) discloses a process for improving the crust color of baked goods. A dough batch is prepared and contacted during the baking period with an ammonium compound which liberates ammonia under the influence of heat. The ammonium compound can be ammonium carbonate.
U.S. Pat. No. 1,913,044 (Sasse) discloses a prepared flour which includes an ingredient adapted to be effective in the presence of atmospheric oxygen and water containing a carbonate in solution added to the flour to make dough. The ingredient includes a water soluble manganese salt and a water soluble citrate. The carbonate can be carbonates or bicarbonates of sodium or potassium.
U.S. Pat. No. 1,856,938 (Wiig) discloses a process of leavening, which includes incorporating at a leavening agent, into a mass to be leavened, a ketone dicarboxylic acid which decomposes with heat, and an alkaline substance capable of aiding decomposition of the agent. The mass is heated to bring about the decomposition. The alkaline substance can be sodium bicarbonate or one of the ammonium carbonates
U.S. Pat. No. 1,803,588 (Blank et al.) discloses a new composition of matter which includes an oxidizing salt having a dough-maturing actin, an ingredient having an acid reaction, an ammonium salt adapted to supply nitrogen to the yeast and simultaneously to release acid components. There is an enzymatic substance adapted to aid in the conditioning of the dough to be used with yeast and a neutralizing agent in making short leavened products.
U.S. Pat. No. 1,633,872 (Rippey) discloses a process of making crackers by mixing flour, water and melted coconut oil and adding to this yeast, salt and sugar, and causing this mixture to raise for a period of four to five hours. Ammonium bicarbonate dissolved in cold water, together with sufficient flour to make a dough of the proper consistency is added. Mixing follows. The dough is caused to raise for a period of from one to two hours and rolled out. The dough is baked for about seven minutes.
U.S. Pat. No. 1,450,865 (Pelc) discloses a water soluble product composed of a hard, dry, porous mass which is stable in the absence of moisture. The mass is an active principle and a vehicle composed of effervescing salts which have reacted together to product a limited amount of carbon dioxide but which are capable of further reaction to produce additional carbonate dioxide. The product is made by mixing the active principle with the vehicle comprising powdered effervescing salts, causing the effervescing salts to react to evolve a limited amount of carbon dioxide and stopping the reaction before it is complete.
U.S. Pat. No. 1,425,628 (Grelck) discloses an improved flour comprising a milk product containing lactic acid and having the casein content in minute, precipitated discontinuous nonadherent particles, nonglutenous flour to absorb the excess flour of the milk product. The flour also contains water-insoluble gluten to an alkaline carbonate adapted to combine with the lactic acid of the milk product with the evolution of carbon dioxide. The alkaline carbonate can then be bicarbonate of soda.
U.S. Pat. No. 673,057 (Kochs) discloses a baking powder which is a mixture of monocalcium phosphate and the insoluble calcium phosphate having the formula Ca.sub.2 H.sub.2 P.sub.2 O.sub.8.
U.S. Pat. No. 422,464 (Thatcher) discloses a baking powder which contains cream of tartar, an alkaline bicarbonate and sugar of milk.
British Pat. No. 335,214 (Dapper) discloses a process for the treatment of flour or dough with a mixture of presulfates and bromates for the purpose of increasing the baking property. Incorporated with the mixture of the additional substances, or jointly with them and the flour or dough, is an acid-neutralizing constituent, for instance, magnesium carbonate and/or calcium carbonate.
U.S. Pat. No. 331,542 (Peters) discloses a baking powder which contains an acid phosphate of lime and a carbonate of lime or magnesia or strontia.
U.S. Pat. No. 331,541 (Peters) discloses a baking powder which contains a carbonate of lime or magnesia or strontia with an acid sulfate of soda or any other equivalent acid sulfate of an alkali.
U.S. Pat. No. 328,364 (Underwood) discloses a baking powder or cream of tartar substitute which contains an acid lactate combined with the carbonates or bicarbonates of the alkaline earths.
U.S. Pat. No 317,821 (McDonald) discloses a baking compound containing bisulfate of potash or of soda and carbonate, bicarbonate, or sesquicarbonate of potash or of soda in proportions specified.
U.S. Pat. No. 315,832 (Peters) discloses a baking powder which contains boracic acid and carbonate of magnesia.
U.S. Pat. No 315,830 (Peters) discloses a baking powder which contains a boracic anhydride and a carbonate of an alkali, such as, bicarbonate of soda. Carbonate of magnesia can also be added.
U.S. Pat. No. 235,615 (Avery et al.) discloses a baking powder or cream of tartar substitute which contains an acid lactate with an alkaline carbonate or bicarbonate, such as, carbonate of potash.
U.S. Pat. No. 174,890 (Arnois) discloses a baking powder compound which contains muriate of ammonia and its chemical equivalent of alkaline carbonates. It is incorporated into the dough of bread, cake, pastry, and similar articles.
U.S. Pat. No. 150,844 (Eastwick et al.) discloses a self-rising flour which contains a salt of aluminum with or without sodium chloride or sugar.
U.S. Pat. No. 96,994 (Stowell) discloses a baking powder which contains bitartrate of ammonia and an alkaline carbonate, such as, the bicarbonate of soda.
U.S. Pat. No. 14,722 (Horsford) discloses pulverulent phosphoric acid for neutralizing alkaline bases and producing carbonic acid which will form a mixture of the pulverulent acid with alkaline carbonates upon the addition of moisture and/or heat. See also U.S. Reissue Pat. No. 2,597 and U.S. Reissue Pat. No. 2,979 of Horsford.
U.S. Reissue Pat. No. 27,981 (Frank et al.) discloses a seasoning salt composition containing from about 20 to about 80 percent by weight of potassium chloride and from about 80 to about 20 percent by weight of sodium chloride.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,353,926 (Sugihara) discloses a method of rapid, controlled preparation of soda cracker dough. A liquid starter is prepared by a process comprising forming a slurry containing flour and water in the proportion of about 3 to 5 parts of water per part of flour. The slurry is inoculated with viable cells of Lactobacillus plantarum in an effective concentration. A liquid sponge is prepared by a process comprising mixing the liquid starter with flour, shortening, and yeast, and fermenting the liquid sponge. A portion of the so-prepared and so-fermented liquid sponge is mixed with flour to form a soda cracker dough. The amount of liquid starter which is mixed with flour is sufficient to reduce the fermentation tie of the sponge and the amount of liquid sponge mixed with flour to form a soda cracker dough and is sufficient to reduce the fermentation time of the dough such that the latter two steps are carried out in about eight hours or less.
British Pat. No. 1085/1883 (Flasschoen) adding iron and manganese carbonates to bread, chocolates or biscuits during manufacture to produce medicated foods
Russian Pat. No. 257,399 discloses that the curing properties of dietetic bread or rolls are improved by introductory of a small amount of KCl and LiCl in a 2:1 ratio. KCl, like NACl, removes water from the organism and is especially recommended in the case of cardiac vascular ailments, as NaCl may be harmful. The taste of the products is the same as with NaCl.
Bohn, Ralph M., "Biscuit and Cracker Production", (1957) pages 92 to 98, discusses the production and compositions of soda crackers. Soda is incorporated during mixing of the ingredients.
Food Materials and Equipment, (March 1946), p. 18, states that calcium carbonate can be used in place of sodium bicarbonate as a leavening agent in the pastry industry.
Food Products Formulary, Vol. 4, "Fabricated Foods", (1982), pages 14 to 16, shows the use of ammonium bicarbonate or sodium bicarbonate in cracker formulations.
Johnson, Arnold H., et al., "Encyclopedia of Food Technology", (1974), pages 113 to 118 and 543 and 548, (Johnson et al.), discloses that potassium hydrogen tartrate, i.e., cream of tartar, is a fast-acting baking acid, whereby the leavening gas is liberated chiefly during the mixing of the batter. The oven spring, i.e., expansion in the oven, is derived mainly from expansion of the preformed bubbles in the batter. The bench tolerance of such type of leavener is not suited for commercial bakery operations where machines are involved and there may be delays between mixing the batter and baking. Another fast-acting acid is monocalcium phosphate monohydrate, which is a more efficient leavener on a weight basis than is cream of tartar and does not react quite so rapidly in the batter. Anhydrous monocalcium phosphate has improved bench tolerance in that a portion of it is slow to dissolve in the batter and consequently has more oven spring.
Matz, Samuel A., "Bakery Technology and Engineering", (1960), pages 259 to 261, (Matz), deals with the sponge-and-dough method of mixing.
Matz, Samuel A., "Cookie and Cracker Technology", (1968), pages 77 to 84, 98 to 105 and 137 to 149, (Matz), states that an acidic pH is mandary in U.S. Pat. No. 4,277,504 and that potassium bicarbonate is very hygroscopic and tends to impart a bitter flavor in the foods in which it is used.
Pomeranz, Yeshahjahu, et al., "Basic Science And Technology", (1971), pages 41 and 42, (Pomeranz), discusses straight and sponge fermentation.
Pyler, E.J., "Baking Science And Technology", Vol. II, (1952), pages 389 and 391, (Pyler), discusses the sponge dough method.
Sultan, William J., "Practical Baking", (1965), pages 348 and 349 (Sultan), discusses making sponge cake and the inclusion of baking soda.
In the production of sponge goods, such as soda crackers, sodium bicarbonate serves a dual function of: (1) neutralizing the acids produced by fermentation in production of the sponge and, (2) leavening the sponge-good dough prior to and during baking. The yeast-leavened sponge contains a considerable amount of acid which is developed by the yeast and by bacteria during fermentation. Sponge formation is followed by production of the sponge-good dough. The acid in the sponge is neutralized by adding sodium bicarbonate when the dough stage is mixed. The production of soda crackers by such method is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 1,803,588, U.S. Pat. No. 2,288,118, Johnson et al., Encyclopedia of Food Technology, The AVI Publishing Company, Inc., Westport, Connecticut, Vol. 2, (1974), pages 113 and 114, Matz, Samuel, Cereal Technology, The AVI Publishing Company, Inc., Westport, Connecticut, (1970), pages 80 and 82, and in Matz, Samuel, Cookie and Cracker Technology, The AVI Publishing Company, Inc., Westport, Connecticut, (1968), pages 137 to 142. A soda cracker produced by this method typically contains about 194 mg total sodium per 14.2 gm serving. About 20 to 25 percent of this total sodium is due to the use of sodium bicarbonate. Medically, it is considered essential that persons suffering from vascular diseases, coronary diseases, the liver diseases, be restricted to a low sodium diet.
Many compositions have been developed as a replacement for common table salt, or sodium chloride, for use in low sodium diets. Salt substitute compositions are disclosed in U.S. Reissue Pat. No. 27,981, U.S. Pat. No. 2,601,112, U.S. Pat. No. 2,824,008 and U.S. Pat. No. 3,505,082. In the compositions of these patents, potassium chloride is used as a replacement for sodium chloride. Other ingredients are added to mask the bitter taste of the potassium ion and to minimize caking and dusting. The beneficial effect of including potassium in the diet is taught in U.S. Pat. No. 4,216,237 in the Russian Pat. No. 257,399. In U.S. Pat. No. 4,216,237 the bitter taste of the potassium ion is masked with a water-soluble, carbohydrate foodstuff ingredient. Potassium chloride, it is disclosed, is prone to ulcerate the intestinal tract, in addition to being unpalatable. Substantially equal portion of bicarbonate, citrate and diphosphate are used to achieve a better balance of anions more closely related to natural potassium sources. Approximately 1/4 and 1/2 of the potassium salt ingredient is comprised by the chloride. In Russian Pat. No. 257,399, potassium chloride is used in a two-to-one ratio with lithium chloride to improve the curing properties of dietetic bread or rolls. The taste of the products, it is disclosed, is the same as with sodium chloride and the harmful effects of sodium chloride are avoided. While replacement of sodium chloride with potassium chloride can be beneficial to the health, as indicated in these patents, it would not serve the function of neutralizing the acids produced in forming a sponge, and it would not leaven the sponge-good dough. Additionally, sodium chloride contributes flavor to a cracker or sweet good. In producing a low sodium baked good, it would be desirable to eliminate other sources of sodium to enable retention of some sodium chloride for its flavoring characteristics.
While sodium bicarbonate is the most widely used chemical leavening agent, many other compositions for producing carbon dioxide gas in foods without the use of sodium bicarbonate are known. Baking powder compositions which contain ammonium carbonate or ammonium bicarbonate are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 150,844, U.S. Pat. No. 174,890, U.S. Pat. No. 235,615, and U.S. Pat. No. 1,865,938. The carbonate of barium is considered to be poisonous in U.S. Pat. No. 331,541 and U.S. Pat. No. 331,542. The carbonates of calcium, magnesium and strontium are used in the baking powder compositions of the latter two patents. The carbonates of calcium are also utilized in the baking powders of U.S. Pat. No. 150,844 and U.S. Pat. No. 328,364. The carbonates of magnesium are present in the baking powders of U.S Pat. No. 315,830, U.S. Pat. No. 315,831, U.S. Pat. No. 315,832 and U.S. Pat. No. 328,364. The carbonate or bicarbonate of potassium is present in the baking powder compositions of U.S. Reissue Pat. No. 2,597, U.S. Reissue Pat. No. 2,979, U.S Pat. No. 14,722, U.S. Pat. No. 96,996, U.S. Pat. No. 150,844, U.S. Pat. No. 174,890, U.S. Pat. No. 235,615 and U.S. Pat. No. 673,057. According to U.S. Pat. No. 235,615, the bicarbonate is preferred over the carbonate for raising bread because less lactate is required to react with the bicarbonate. In U.S. Pat. No., 422,464, it is taught that ammonium carbonate is used to prevent a baking soda comprising cream of tartar and sodium bicarbonate from becoming hard. However, according to U.S. Pat. No. 422,464, the carbonate of ammonium is considered to be objectionable as a food.
Effervescing salt compositions which utilize carbonates for producing carbon dioxide are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 1,450,865 and U.S Pat. No. 2,984,543. The carbonates or bicarbonates of sodium, potassium, ammonium, calcium or magnesium may be used in the compositions of U.S. Pat. No. 1,450,865. In U.S. Pat. No. 2,984,543 the effervescing salt may contain potassium or lithium bicarbonates or calcium, magnesium, or organic carbonates. However, in these effervescing salt compositions and in the baking powder compositions, an acid is included for reaction with the bicarbonate or carbonate for producing the carbon dioxide. These compositions would be unsuitable for use in producing a sponge-good dough because they would not serve the dual function of leavening the sponge-good dough and neutralizing the acids which are produced during formation of the sponge.
The addition of an alkaline carbonate as a neutralizer and as a leavening agent for a "prepared flour" is taught in U.S. Pat. No. 1,428,628. Lactic acid which is present in sour milk or butter milk of the prepared flour is neutralized by the alkaline carbonate. Bicarbonate of soda, however, is the only carbonate disclosed in the patent.
The use of carbonates, other than sodium bicarbonate in the production of baked goods is disclosed in British Pat. No. 1,085 of 1883, British Pat. No. 335,214, U.S. Pat. No., 2,970,915 and as early as 1796 in Simmons, Amelia, American Cookery, reprint by Martin Rywell, Buck Hill Associates, Johnsburg, NY 12843, (1966), pages 30 and 32. The addition of iron and manganese carbonates to bread and biscuits for medicinal purposes is disclosed in British Pat. No. 1,085/1883. Magnesium and/or calcium carbonates are taught as acid-neutralizing constituents in British Pat. No. 335,214 for dough or flour compositions which contain persulphates and bromates. Calcium carbonate is disclosed as a bread improver in U.S. Pat. No. 2,970,915. In Simmons, Amelia, ibid., recipes for honey cake and cookies include pearl ash, an impure potassium carbonate product obtained by partial purification of potash from wood ashes. Replacement of sodium bicarbonate with potassium carbonate to achieve sodium reduction in the final baked product is not taught by any of these references.
The preparation of a health bread with potassium carbonate and ammonium carbonate as a leavening agent is taught in U.S. Pat. No. 2,228,729. The potassium carbonate, it is disclosed, results in a bread which is free of greenish color or hue and possess a fine whitish interior. The ammonium and potassium carbonates are added to a sponge which contains approximately 40 percent or more eggs. The large percentage of eggs, it is disclosed, creates a large expanding force upon heating thereby reducing the usual amount of chemical leavening agents needed for expansion. Although a sponge is produced, fermentation is not disclosed in the patent. Additionally, the degree of expansion needed in the production of the bread would be unacceptable in the production of crackers.
The use of alkaline carbonates, other than those of sodium, as a leavening agent or neutralizing agent in the production of baked goods, is also disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 317,821, U.S. Pat. No. 1,913,044, U.S. Pat. No. 2,070,922, U.S. Pat. No. 2,394,791 and Food Materials and Equipment, (March 1946), page 18. Treating sponge to neutralize its acidity, to leaven it and to obtain a low-sodium cracker is not disclosed in these references. In U.S. Pat. No. 317,821, the acid or disulfate of potash with carbonates or bicarbonates or potash is used as a replacement for tartaric acid in the production of bread, cakes, biscuits, and the like. In U.S. Pat. No., 1,913,044, a bicarbonate or carbonate of either sodium or potassium is reacted with manganese succinate to promote oxidation of the coloring matter in a bread dough. Calcium carbonate is taught as a replacement for sodium bicarbonate in the pastry industry in the Food Materials & Equipment article. In U.S. Pat. No. 2,070,922, hydrogen peroxide is used as a leavening agent in the production of waffles, griddle cakes, crackers, and the like. Alkaline metal carbonates are used to stabilize the hydrogen peroxide and to make the formulation alkaline at a pH of about 8 to 10. Preneutralization of starch for various wafer or waffle batters with calcium carbonate is taught in U.S. Pat. No. 2,394,791. The calcium carbonate replaces a portion of the sodium bicarbonate, the sodium bicarbonate being retained to obtain sufficient leavening action.
Treatment of a fermented dough with a carbonate other than sodium is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 2,032,442. In the process of such patent, a heat-decomposable ammonium compound, such as a carbonate of ammonium, is applied to the surface of a fermented dough. Subsequent baking releases ammonia which brown the surface of the bread, rolls, and the like products. Mixing of the ammonium carbonate with the fermented dough to distribute it substantially uniformly throughout the dough to achieve neutralization of acids produced during fermentation is not disclosed.
The use of alkaline carbonates, other than sodium bicarbonate, in fermented doughs for the production of various baked goods, is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 2,033,099, U.S. Pat. No. 2,137,027, U.S. Pat. No. 3,108,878 and U.S. Pat. No. 4,044,155. In the processes of these patents the alkaline carbonate is added with the yeast and is present during fermentation. Breads, rolls, buns, and the like are produced from these yeast leavened doughs. The production of soda crackers is not disclosed. In U.S. Pat. No. 2,033,009, an alkaline salt is added to the yeast food to keep it alkaline until it reaches the fermentation stage, whether in the dough or in the sponge. Calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate are disclosed as the preferred alkaline salts because of their slow solubility. In U.S. Pat. No. 2,137,027, a yeast sponge is buffered with ammonium carbonate or calcium or magnesium carbonates. In U.S Pat. No. 3,108,878, a calcium carbonate buffer is added with yeast to a soy flour dough composition In U.S. Pat. No. 4,044,155, a non-fat dry milk substance for incorporation into yeast-leavened doughs, is prepared by mixing deproteinized whey, an ammonium compound such as ammonium carbonate or bicarbonate, and a protein supplement. A basic material, such as a carbonate or bicarbonate, and a protein supplement. A basic material, such as a carbonate or bicarbonate or sodium, potassium, calcium, or magnesium, is optionally added to control the pH of the substitute and to at least partially neutralize the deproteinized whey.
Calcium carbonate is taught as a buffering agent for a liquid yeast brew in U.S. Pat. No. 3,490,916. The brew may be used to form a yeast leavened dough, which may be a cracker or soda cracker composition. The use of calcium carbonate to neutralize the acids present in a sponge and to leaven the fermented dough is not disclosed. Furthermore, calcium carbonate is not sufficiently soluble in water to uniformly neutralize the acids in a sponge or to leaven a sponge dough substantially uniformly.
U.S. Pat. No. 1,633,872 discloses ammonium bicarbonate as a substitute for baking soda in the production of an unsalted cracker. According to U.S. Pat. No. 1,633,872 salt is added to the surface of a cracker to mask the objectionable taste resulting from the breakdown of the fat used as shortening. The rancidity is eliminated by the use of coconut oil, thereby eliminating the need for a salt topping. The use of ammonium bicarbonate instead of sodium bicarbonate as the means of raising the dough, it is disclosed, eliminates the soda flavor and improves the color of the cracker. A relatively rapid fermentation time of four to five hours is used before the ammonium bicarbonate is added to the sponge dough. Adding sufficient ammonium bicarbonate to neutralize acids produced during the fermentation is not disclosed. According to U.S. Pat. No. 1,633,872, if too large a proportion of ammonium bicarbonate is used, a yellow objectionable color develops in the cracker.
In using ammonium bicarbonate alone as a replacement for sodium bicarbonate, neutralization of acids produced during fermentation becomes a problem. As disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 1,633,872, the ammonium bicarbonate is entirely volatilized in the baking operation. The release of both ammonia and carbon dioxide makes pH control of the final product difficult. Furthermore, it has been found that replacement of sodium bicarbonate with ammonium bicarbonate in the production of a soda cracker, does not result in a uniform laminar cell structure. Large cells and tight areas are obtained with ammonium bicarbonate. The cracker is too tender and has both flat and raised or bubbled portions. Accordingly, ammonium bicarbonate alone is not a suitable replacement for sodium bicarbonate in the production of an acceptable low sodium soda cracker.
Potassium bicarbonate has been used as a component in leavening mixtures for baked products intended to be consumed in sodium-free diets. However, as disclosed by Matz, Samuel, Cookie and Cracker Technology, (1968), page 77, potassium bicarbonate is very hygroscopic and tends to impart a bitter flavor to the foods in which it is used. Crackers are baked to a low moisture content and their crispness gives a snap or crunch upon eating. The presence of a highly hygroscopic material in a cracker would tend to be deleterious to the achievement of these sensory properties. Additionally, potassium bicarbonate is very expensive. Matz teaches away from the use of carbonates because their very high alkalinity, compared to the alkalinity of sodium bicarbonate, tends to result in localized areas of very high alkalinity which is formed as the granules dissolve in the dough. These localized areas, it is disclosed, result in reactions which lead to undesirably colored and flavored products. In producing a laminated product, these localized areas generally appear as dark streaks in the baked product.